FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN LEARNING:

THEORIES, PROCESSES, AND MOTIVATION IN EDUCATION.

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Table of Contents

Chapter One

CONCEPT OF HUMAN LEARNING

Types of Learning

Types of Behavioural Learning

Chapter Two

LEARNING THEORIES

Ausubel's Meaningful Learning Theory

Rogers's Humanistic Psychology

Types of Learning

Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning and Learning by Observation

Key Principles of Classical Conditioning Theory

Operant Conditioning Theory and Learning

Key Components of Operant Conditioning

Learning by Observation

Key Steps involved in Observational Learning

Chapter Three

MOTIVATION

Theories of Learning Motivation

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic

Achievement Goal Theory

Expectancy Value Theory

Flow Theory

Self-Determination Theory

Social Cognitive Theory

Nature Versus Nurture

Motivation In Learning

Importance of Motivation

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Two-Factor Theory

Acquired-Needs Theory

Transfer, Interference, and Overgeneralization

Chapter Four

REWARD AND PUNISHMENT

Types of reinforcement

Principles of Reward

Reward and Punishment

Chapter Five

MEMORY AND FORGETTING

Short-Term versus Long-Term Memory

Aspects of Memory

A General Model of Human Memory System

Eyewitness Memory

Autobiographical Memory

Measurement of Retention

Causes of Forgetting

Memory as a Constructive Process

Ways of Enhancing Memory

Chapter Six

THEORIES OF FORGETTING

Cue-dependent forgetting

Interference theories

Trace decay theory

(A) Continuous Reinforcement

(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement

(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Behavior Modification

Token Economy

Behaviour Shaping

Applications to Classroom setting

Summary

Critical Evaluation

References

Chapter One

CONCEPT OF HUMAN LEARNING

The process of human leaning is continuous which starts right from the time of birth of an individual and continues till the death. We all are engaged in the learning endeavours` in order to develop our adaptive capabilities as per the requirements of the changing environment. Learning is an adaptive function by which our nervous system changes in relation to stimuli in the environment, thus changing our behavioral responses and permitting us to function in our environment. The process occurs initially in our nervous system in response to environmental stimuli. Neural pathways can be strengthened, pruned, activated, or rerouted, all of which cause changes in our behavioral responses. Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. The field of behavioral psychology focuses largely on measurable behaviors that are learned, rather than trying to understand internal states such as emotions and attitudes. For a learning to occur, two things are important: the presence of a stimulus in the environment and the innate dispositions like emotional and instinctual dispositions. A person keeps on learning across all the stages of life, by constructing or reconstructing experiences under the influence of emotional and instinctual dispositions. Psychologists in general define Learning as relatively permanent behavioural modifications which take place as a result of experience (Juneja, 2015; Lumen, 2021). Overall, learning refers to understanding any content, technique, or behaviour by an organism. Learning has most frequently been studied in the context of human beings (and sometimes animals) both in the past and in the present. Humans achieve excellence through learning and without it they retain their animalistic nature. From the beginning until now, humans have learned to survive according to different conditions whether on purpose or accidentally. This is because humans continue to learn for all issues in their lives. Learning requires both intrinsic and extrinsic factors including a teacher to learn from. Learning is the result of being educated by others. Therefore, reward and punishment must be used appropriately to have the best outcome. It should be noted that any positive factor can have adverse consequences if it is overused or underused. This will result in undesirable outcomes. In this section, we aim to focus on the application of reward and punishment. These techniques have always been tied with learning. The correct application of these two critical behaviors is very important in achieving the best possible results.

This definition of learning stresses on three important elements of learning:

Learning involves a behavioural change which can be better or worse.

This behavioural change should take place as a result of practice and experience. Changes resulting from maturity or growth cannot be considered as learning

This behavioural change must be relatively permanent and last for a relatively long time enough.

John B Watson is one amongst the first thinkers who has proven that behavioural changes occur as a result of learning. Watson is believed to be the founder of Behavioural school of thought, which gained its prominence or acceptability around the first half of the 20th century. Gales defined Learning as the behavioural modification which occurs as a result of experience as well as training. Crow and Crow defined learning as the process of acquisition of knowledge, habits and attitudes. According to E.A, Peel, Learning can be described as a change in the individual which takes place as a result of the environmental change. H.J. Klausmeir described Learning as a process which leads to some behavioural change as a result of some experience, training, observation, activity, etc.

The key characteristics of the learning process are:

When described in the simplest possible manner, learning is described as an experience acquisition process.

In the complex form, learning can be described as process of acquisition, retention and modification of experience.

It re-establishes the relationship between a stimulus and response.

It is a method of problem solving and is concerned about making adjustments with the environment.

It involves all those gamut of activities which may have a relatively permanent effect on the individual.

The process of learning is concerned about experience acquisition, retention of experiences, and experience development in a step by step manner, synthesis of both old and new experiences for creating a new pattern.

Learning is concerned about cognitive, conative and affective aspects. Knowledge acquisition process is cognitive, any change in the emotions is affective and conative is acquisition of new habits or skills.

Types of Learning

Motor Learning: Our day to day activities like walking, running, driving, etc., must be learnt for ensuring a good life. These activities to a great extent involve muscular coordination.

Verbal Learning: It is related with the language which we use to communicate and various other forms of verbal communication such as symbols, words, languages, sounds, figures and signs.

Concept Learning: This form of learning is associated with higher order cognitive processes like intelligence, thinking, reasoning, etc., which we learn right from our childhood. Concept learning involves the processes of abstraction and generalization, which is very useful for identifying or recognizing things.

Discrimination Learning: Learning which distinguishes between various stimuli with its appropriate and different responses is regarded as discrimination stimuli.

Learning of Principles: Learning which is based on principles helps in managing the work most effectively. Principles based learning explains the relationship between various concepts.

Attitude Learning: Attitude shapes our behaviour to a very great extent, as our positive or negative behaviour is based on our attitudinal predisposition.

Types of Behavioural Learning

The Behavioural School of Thought which was founded by John B Watson which was highlighted in his seminal work, “Psychology as the Behaviorist View It”, stressed on the fact that Psychology is an objective science, hence mere emphasis on the mental processes should not be considered as such processes cannot be objectively measured or observed. Watson tried to prove his theory with the help of his famous Little Albert Experiment, by way of which he conditioned a small kid to be scared of a white rat. The behavioural psychology described three major types of learning: Classical Conditioning, Observational Learning and Operant Conditioning.

Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is a process by which we learn to associate events, or stimuli, that frequently happen together; as a result of this, we learn to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov conducted a famous study involving dogs in which he trained (or conditioned) the dogs to associate the sound of a bell with the presence of a piece of meat. The conditioning is achieved when the sound of the bell on its own makes the dog salivate in anticipation for the meat. In case of Classical Conditioning, the process of learning is described as a Stimulus Response connection or association. Classical Conditioning theory has been explained with the help of Pavlov’s Classic Experiment, in which the food was used as the natural stimulus which was paired with the previously neutral stimuli that’s a bell in this case. By establishing an association between the natural stimulus (food) and the neutral stimuli (sound of the bell), the desired response can be elicited. This theory will be discussed in detail in the next few articles.

Operant Conditioning: Propounded by scholars like Edward Thorndike firstly and later by B.F. Skinner, this theory stresses on the fact that the consequences of actions shape the behaviour. The theory explains that the intensity of a response is either increased or decreased as a result of punishment or reinforcement. Skinner explained how with the help of reinforcement one can strengthen behaviour and with punishment reduce or curb behaviour. It was also analyzed that the behavioural change strongly depends on the schedules of reinforcement with focus on timing and rate of reinforcement. Operant conditioning is the learning process by which behaviors are reinforced or punished, thus strengthening or extinguishing a response. Edward Thorndike coined the term “law of effect,” in which behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated, and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. B. F. Skinner researched operant conditioning by conducting experiments with rats in what he called a “Skinner box.” Over time, the rats learned that stepping on the lever directly caused the release of food, demonstrating that behavior can be influenced by rewards or punishments. He differentiated between positive and negative reinforcement, and also explored the concept of extinction.

Observational Learning: The Observational Learning process was propounded by Albert Bandura in his Social Learning Theory, which focused on learning by imitation or observing people’s behaviour. For observational learning to take place effectively, four important elements will be essential: Motivation, Attention, Memory and Motor Skills. Observational learning occurs through observing the behaviors of others and imitating those behaviors even if there is no reinforcement at the time. Albert Bandura noticed that children often learn through imitating adults, and he tested his theory using his famous Bobo doll experiment. Through this experiment, Bandura learned that children would attack the Bobo doll after viewing adults hitting the doll.

Chapter Two

LEARNING THEORIES

​Ausubel's Meaningful Learning Theory

David Ausubel contends that learning takes place in the human organism through a meaningful learning process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts or propositions hanging new items on existing cognitive pegs. The cognitive theory of learning as put forth by Ausubel is perhaps best understood by contrasting rote and meaningful learning.

Ausubel described rote learning as the process of acquiring material as "discrete and relatively isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion, not permitting the establishment of [meaningful] relationships". (1968:108). That is, rote learning in voles the mental storage of items having little or no association with existing cognitive structure.

Meaningful learning, on the other hand, may be described as a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure. If we think of cognitive structure as a system of building blocks, then rote learning is the process of acquiring isolated blocks with no particular in the building of structure, and therefore with no relationship to other blocks. Meaningful learning is the process whereby blocks become an integral part of already established categories or systematic clusters of blocks. Any learning situation can be meaningful if: learners have a meaningful learning set that is, a disposition to relate the new learning task to what they already know the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners—that is, relatable to the learners' structure of knowledge. William James (1890:662) described meaningful learning: In mental terms, the more other facts is associated with in the mind, the better possession of it our memory retains. Each of its associates becomes a hook to which it hangs, a means to fish it up by when sunk beneath the surface. Together, they form a network of attachments by which it is woven into the entire issue of our thought. The "secret of good memory" is thus the secret of forming diverse and multiple associations with every fact we care to retain. Briefly, then, of two men with the same outward experiences and the same amount of mere native tenacity, the one who thinks over his experiences most, and weaves them into systematic relation with each other, will be the one with the best memory.

System Forgetting

Ausubel provides a plausible explanation for the universal nature of forgetting. Since rotely learned materials do not interact with cognitive structure in substantive fashion, they are learned in conformity with the laws of association, and their retention is influenced primarily by the interfering effects of similar rote materials learned immediately before or after the learning task (commonly referred to as proactive and retroactive inhibition). In the case of meaningfully learned material, retention is influenced primarily by the properties of "relevant and cumulatively established ideational systems in cognitive structure with which the learning task interacts" (Ausubel,1968:108).

The second stage of assumption that operates through what I have called "cognitive pruning" procedures (Brown 1972). Pruning is the elimination of unnecessary clutter and a clearing of the way for more material to enter the cognitive field, in the same way that pruning a tree ultimately allows greater and fuller growth. An important aspect of the pruning stage of learning is that subsumptive forgetting, or pruning, is not haphazard or chance—it is systematic. The notion that forgetting is systematic.​

Rogers's Humanistic Psychology

Roger's humanistic psychology has more of an affective focus than a cognitive one. In his classical work Client-Centered Therapy (1951), Rogers carefully analyzed human behavior in general, including the learning process, by means of presentation of 19 formal principles of human behavior. All 19 principles are concerned with learning to some degree, from a "phenomenological" perspective, a perspective that is in sharp contrast to that of Skinner. Rogers studied the "whole person" as a physical and cognitive, but primarily emotional, being. His formal principles focused on the development of an individual's self-concept and of his or her personal sense of reality, those internal forces which cause a person to act.

The "fully functioning person," according to Rogers, lives at peace with all of his feelings and reactions; he is able to be what he potentially is; he exists as a process of being and becoming himself. What is needed, according to Rogers, is real facilitators of learning, and one can only facilitate by establishing an interpersonal relationship with the learner. Teachers, to be facilitators, must first of all be real and genuine, discarding masks of superiority and omniscience. Second, teachers need to have genuine trust, acceptance, and a prizing of the other person (the student) as a worthy, valuable individual. And third, teachers need to communicate openly and emphatically with their students and vice versa.​

Types of Learning

The educational psychologist, Robert Gagné (1965), for example, ably demonstrated the importance of identifying a number of types of learning which all human beings use. Gagné(1965:58-59) identified eight types of learning:

Signal learning: The individual learns to make a general diffuse response to a signal. This is the classical conditioned response of Pavlov. Stimulus-response learning. The learner acquires a precise response to a discriminated stimulus. What is learned is a connection or, in Skinnerian terms, a discriminated operant, sometimes called an instrumental response.

Chaining: What is acquired is a chain of two or more stimulus response connections. The conditions for such learning have also been described by Skinner.

Verbal association: Verbal association is the learning of chains that are verbal. Basically, the conditions resemble those for other (motor) chains. However, the presence of language in the human being makes this special type because internal links may be selected from the individual's previously learned repertoire of language.

Multiple discrimination: The individual learns to make a number of different identifying responses to many different stimuli, which may resemble each other in physical appearence to a greater or lesser degree. Although the learning of each stimulus-response connection is a simple occurrence, the connections tend to interfere with one another.

Concept learning: The learner acquires the ability to make a common response to a class of stimuli even though the individual members of that class may differ widely from each other. The learner is able to make a response that identifies an entire class of objects or events.

Principle learning. In simplest terms, a principle is chain of two or more concepts. It functions to organize behavior and experience. In Ausubel's terminology, a principle is a "subsumer"—a cluster of related concepts. Problem solving. Problem solving is a kind of learning that requires the internal events usually referred to as "thinking". Previously acquired concepts and principles are combined in a conscious focus on an unresolved or ambiguous set of events.

The first five types seem to fit easily into a behavioristic framework, while the last three are better explained by Ausubel's or Roger's theories of learning.​

Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning and Learning by Observation

The concept of learning is quite comprehensive as it covers a broad range of activities. In many books, the theories of learning are also regarded as kinds of learning. The theories of learning are an organized set of principles that explain how individuals attain, retain or recall the learnt knowledge. Learning theories establish the conceptual framework for explaining how information absorption, processing and retention take place during learning. Human learning is influenced by a gamut of factors like Emotional, Cognitive, Past Experiences and Environmental factors. Learning theories prescribe the right format or methodologies of learning for making the learning effective and more impactful. During early 20th century, many psychologists became increasingly interested in understanding the relevance of learning from a scientific perspective. For a scientific orientation, the study of psychology gave importance to only those variables which were quantifiable and measurable. Environmental influences like, reinforcements, associations, observations and punishments influence the learning process. The key learning theories are Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning and Social Learning. These theories include; the following.

Classical Conditioning Theory and Learning

The Classical Conditioning theory was established by Russian Physiologist named Ivan Pavlov, who first discovered the crucial principles of classical learning theory with the help of an experiment done on dogs to study their digestive processes. The Nobel Prize laureate of 1904, while studying the digestive processes in dogs came across a very interesting observation during his experimentation. He noticed that his subject would begin to salivate by seeing the lab assistant with white lab coats entering into the room before being fed. Though Pavlov’s discovery is originally an accidental discovery, but later with the help of his experiments the classical conditioning theory came into existence. His Classical conditioning theory played a crucial role in explaining the important psychological concepts like learning and equally established the foundation for the behavioural school of thought.

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